Otmazgin: Welcome, Yuval, it’s a pleasure to have the opportunity to interview such a distinguished member of our faculty. Many thanks for joining us today.

Harari: It’s an honor, Nissim. As you know, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem has been my home for most of my life, since the age of 17 when I first began my BA studies in history. I’m thrilled to be here.

Otmazgin: Yuval, what do you think is the greatest challenge faced by institutions of higher education today?

Harari: I think that the challenge I’m most concerned about is the politicization of science – the manner in which scientific theories and debates have rapidly become political debates – and how it creates new threats to our academic freedom and our freedom of speech.

We see this trend in history departments all over the world. Many politicians feel that history is much too important to be left to the historians, and politicians frequently distort historical evidence in the name of ideology. This, of course, isn’t new. History has always been a political subject, and has always struggled with censorship and political repression by those who dislike what historians have to say.

Otmazgin: Would you say that this challenge is limited to historians and the humanities?

Harari: More and more disciplines are being politicized, including disciplines that thought they were completely immune to this problem. People in the natural sciences sometimes think that politicization is a problem limited to the humanities and social sciences. They are wrong. We saw it most recently during the pandemic – in epidemiology and medicine – when Covid-related research became highly politicized, and professors found themselves neck-deep in fierce political debates and threatening confrontations. The same has happened in the field of environmental sciences, as climate change has shifted from scientific theory to a hot political topic. We also see it in computer science, which is changing the job market, daily life, and the geopolitical balance of power in the world.

Otmazgin: Would you say that the politicization of academia is inevitable?

Harari: I would say that it is not accidental. It’s the result of science having become the most important change factor of the 21st century. The theories being developed within the university, and the technology emerging from the labs, are changing the world. For better or for worse, scientific debates just cannot be confined within the walls of academia. Nowadays there’s a direct line from the computer science department to the Knesset, the Supreme Court, and the military. It’s therefore unreasonable to expect that the research remain immune to politics. I’d actually like to see political parties drawing up an agenda about algorithms, about AI, about which technologies to develop or not to develop, etc.

Otmazgin: Another pressure we feel within the university is the expectation that we equip our graduates with skills relevant for the global job market, ones that will make them more employable and help them cope with the challenges that await them. What transferable skills do you think our students will need to successfully navigate the job market once they graduate?

Harari: Well, the key problem is that nobody has any idea what the job market will look like in 20 years. This is the first time in history that we are unable to anticipate this. The only thing we know for certain is that it will be completely different from what we see now, and will probably be very surprising. But, what types of jobs people will do in 20 years, and what kind of skills they will need for them, we simply don’t know.

Throughout history, while it was never possible to predict the future, the job market was always relatively stable. 1,000 years ago, in 1022, people couldn’t predict wars and epidemics, but they could confidently anticipate that 20 years forward there would still be a need for farmers skilled in growing food, and soldiers who would know how to ride horses and shoot bows. Those that worked in the royal administration would need to know how to read and write. Yet, when we consider what to teach students today so that they have the relevant skills for 2040 or 2050, we really have no idea. This is a first.

A lot of jobs will completely disappear, a lot of new jobs will emerge, and many existing jobs will evolve. It’s almost impossible to predict how exactly they will change, and therefore we don’t know what particular skills people will need. Take, for example, a skill such as coding. We can comfortably assume that, with the advancement of technology, a lot of code will need to be written over the next few decades. But who’s to say that 20 years from now artificial intelligence won’t be doing the bulk of the coding for us?

Otmazgin: Even if we cannot predict the future job market, how do you think the humanities will fare?

Harari: I believe that philosophy, in particular, will become much more important and applicable in this century. Many complex philosophical questions that, for most of history, had no practical implications for how people actually lived their lives, are becoming practical questions of engineering. The example everybody gives is self-driving vehicles and the need to program ethics into the algorithm. If the vehicle has to compromise the safety of the car owner in order to spare a pedestrian in the middle of the road, how should it proceed? This type of debate turns very old philosophical dilemmas into extremely relevant questions. And, as opposed to philosophers who rarely applied their teachings to reality, algorithms behave precisely as they are programmed. The responsibility is therefore much greater.

Another example is surveillance. Governments throughout history dreamed of monitoring their citizens, but due to technological limitations, it was impossible to monitor everybody all the time. Now, for the first time in history, it is becoming possible to completely annihilate privacy. The surveillance tools developed by researchers and students in our university are applied just a few kilometers away – in Issawiya, Anata, and the Shuafat refugee camp – to create an unprecedented surveillance system. These tools are then exported by Israeli security companies to all kinds of regimes throughout the world, sometimes in order to spy on journalists, minorities, human rights activists, and opposition parties. What is our responsibility in this?

At the very least, I think our university should mandate that every student who learns how to develop such technologies be obligated to take courses on ethics, similar to the requirements for medical students.

Finally, in the 21st century we are likely to learn how to use biotechnology to engineer, reengineer, or even manufacture bodies and brains. This is an extremely dangerous development that raises many philosophical, ethical, and spiritual questions, some of which have been pondered by humans for thousands of years without any practical implications. And now that they are becoming so urgent, I believe that in the 21st century the humanities will be more important than ever before.

In a cover story published in The Plant Journal, researchers used genetic engineering methods to produce new potato varieties that produce special proteins. These proteins act as a biological sensor that can be sent, for example, to the chloroplasts in the plant’s cells, where photosynthesis occurs.

The researchers used sensitive cameras that can detect sensor signals that obtain spatial information about the entire plant and monitor the plant’s physiological state throughout the development of late blight in the potato.

The study was led by doctoral student Matanel Hipsch under the supervision of Dr. Shilo Rosenwasser of Hebrew University’s Robert H. Smith Institute of Plant Sciences and Genetics in Agriculture. They collaborated with Dr. David Helman from Hebrew University’s Department of Soil and Water Sciences, who developed an AI-based algorithm capable of analyzing the fluorescent images and distinguishing between healthy and infected leaves.

The research also revealed that the protein detected diseased areas of the leaves even during the first invisible stages. Another fascinating finding suggests that the areas infected with late blight are characterized by higher photosynthetic activity compared to the rest of the leaf. This indicates how the pathogen maintains and even improves leaf productivity in the early stages of the disease to ‘disguise’ its development in the plant, according to the researchers.

“The development of advanced biotechnological tools for early plant disease detection can lead to a future research breakthrough in understanding the pathogenicity process and minimize agricultural damage,” Dr. Rosenwasser says.

Hebrew University researchers Dr. Nardy Lampl and Omer Sapir of the Institute of Plant Sciences, Dr. Yaron Michaeli of the Advanced Institute for Environmental Sciences at the Faculty of Agriculture, and Prof. Yigal Cohen from the Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences at Bar-Ilan University also participated in the study.

This research was supported by the Israel Science Foundation (No. 827/17) and ICA in Israel foundation.

“I am excited and honored to receive this significant award as the first global recipient,” says Amal, a professor at the Hebrew University School of Pharmacy, Institute for Drug Research, Faculty of Medicine. “This grant will enhance our research initiatives to develop ASD therapeutics that will help millions of children and families around the world.”

The grant is funding Amal’s groundbreaking research on the role of nitric oxide (NO) in ASD pathology. Amal published the first paper linking nitric oxide with ASD, a key step toward identifying a drug target for the disorder. NO is a multifunctional signaling molecule and a neurotransmitter that plays an important role in physiological and pathophysiological processes.

Recently, Amal co-founded and is Chief Scientific Officer at Point6 Bio Ltd, a computational biology company for the diagnosis and treatment of ASD. He is also partnering with a NASDAQ-traded U.S. pharmaceutical company to research and develop ASD drugs.

In his Laboratory for Neuromics, Cell Signaling, and Translational Medicine, Amal leads a group of scientists whose goal is to discover therapeutics and biomarkers for ASD, Alzheimer’s, other brain disorders, and diseases.

He has received many awards including the Wolf Foundation’s prestigious Krill Prize, the Prusiner-Abramsky Research Award in Clinical and Basic Neuroscience, the Kaye Innovation Award, the Golda Meir Lectureship Award, and the Brettle Center for Research Award. Among the numerous grants he has received include funding from the U.S. Department of Defense and the Israel Science Foundation. Prof. Amal was listed among the 40 under 40 most promising people in Israel by The Marker Magazine, a major business publication.

Prior to joining Hebrew University, Amal was a Senior Postdoctoral Fellow at MIT and an affiliate in the Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research at the MIT Broad Institute and Harvard. In 2015, he received his Ph.D. from the Technion-Israel Institute of Technology in Nanotechnology and Chemical Engineering. Amal received his M.S. in Pharmacology at Tel Aviv University in 2009 and a B.S. in Pharmacy from Hebrew University in 2007.

These species join a large number of invertebrates recently found in Israeli caves that are new to science. The study was recently published in the Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution journal and has extensive scientific implications for uncovering the evolution of speciation in caves and the historical, geographic, and climatic processes that occurred in Israel.

Doctoral student Shlomi Aharon led the study under the guidance of Dr. Efrat Gavish-Regev, from the Hebrew University National Natural History Collections and Prof. Dror Hawlena from the Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Behavior.

“In many cases, these adaptations will lead to the creation of new species, whose distribution is geographically limited in areas with unique ecological conditions, such as a single cave or a system of connected caves,” Aharon says. “In this study, we sought to understand the evolutionary relationships between funnel web spiders with normal eyes that are found at the cave entrance, with those that are further in the cave and are pigmentless, eye-reduced, and even completely blind.”

In the study, the researchers collected the spiders by hand and then conducted a series of microscopic examinations, recorded the morphology, and extracted DNA from each to compare them to sequences of known species of the same genus that exist in GenBank.

“Among the spiders we found, five were unique to different caves, and the two other species were found in several caves in the Galilee and in caves situated at the Ofra karst field, which is now under threat from planned construction,” says Dr. Gavish-Regev. “One of the surprising findings in the study shows that the new species are evolutionarily closer to species from caves in Mediterranean areas in southern Europe than to species living in close proximity to them at cave entrances in Israel.”

Five of the new species described had reduced eyes, while the other two were completely blind. The researchers suggest that the new species developed adaptations to life in underground habitats and speciated in caves, after or simultaneously with the extinction of the ancestor species from which they evolved, which lived outside caves and became extinct due to historical regional climate changes.

“We are currently witnessing the effects of climate change on many habitats, which obliges us to consider, maintain, and promote programs that include the preservation of underground habitats – many of which are at immediate risk,” concludes Professor Hawlena. “We must protect Israel’s unique nature, preserve its underground systems for the future, and further explore the processes that created these systems in the country.”

The team of researchers, led by Prof. Ruth Sperling of the Hebrew University Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, together with Prof. Stephen Stamm from the School of Medicine in Lexington, Kentucky, hypothesize that a new type of primate-specific proteins, translated from molecules of circular RNA, improves the brain’s function in relation to other organisms with a similar number of genes.

RNA is the mediator in turning instructions encoded in DNA into cellular proteins. As part of the process, the RNA is heavily modified: some pieces are cut out and the remaining parts are put back together, to assemble a new line of RNA – which fundamentally changes their composition. Sometimes, these parts form in circles, creating circular RNA.

Circular RNAs are mostly found in the brain and their formation is promoted by genomic elements specific to humans and other primates, called Alu-elements. The human genome consists of about 11% Alu-elements and their expansion in primates correlates with brain complexity.

“For the first time, the team of researchers will focus on new biological aspects of the circular RNA molecules, with the aim of revealing why humans have a stronger and more complex brain than other organisms with a similar number of genes,” Stamm says.

Prof. Sperling, a world-renowned expert in RNA processing, is seeking to understand how circular RNA is created by the splicing machinery in cells, to analyze when this occurs and how it is regulated in the brain.

According to Sperling, “If we do find that we have new proteins, this opens up a completely new research field with essential functions for the human brain.” Such a discovery may have wide implications, for example, on the detection of genetic materials correlated with schizophrenia, epilepsy, autism, or neurological disease.”

The hypothesis is that the new proteins, translated from these specific circular RNAs, substantially increase molecular complexity, which improves brain functions. “Do circular RNAs code for proteins? Do these proteins function? Can they be found in the brain? This is what we are analyzing. It has never been looked at,” Stamm says.

As part of the three-year project, there will be annual two-week RNA biology courses held in the summer at Hebrew University in Jerusalem led by Stamm and Sperling. Students from both universities will have theoretical lectures and do hands-on experiments during the course.

Research reported in this publication was supported by the National Science Foundation under Award Number 2221921, and United States-Israel Binational Science Foundation under Award Number 2022602.